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In archaeologymayan essay classic Maya collapse is the decline of the Classic Maya civilization and the abandonment of Maya cities in the southern Maya lowlands of Mesoamerica between the 8th and 9th centuries, at the end of the Classic Maya Period.
At Ceibalthe Preclassic Maya experienced a similar collapse in the 2nd century. The Classic Period of Mesoamerican chronology is generally defined as the period from to CE, the last century of which is referred to as the Terminal Classic. Urban centers of the mayan essay lowlands, among them PalenqueCopánTikaland Calakmulwent into decline during the 8th and 9th centuries and were abandoned shortly thereafter.
Archaeologically, this decline is indicated by the cessation of monumental inscriptions [3] and the reduction of large-scale architectural construction at the primary urban centers of the Classic Period, mayan essay. Although termed a collapse, it did not mark the end of the Maya civilization but rather a shift away from the Southern Lowlands as a power center; the Northern Yucatán in particular prospered afterwards, although with very different artistic and architectural styles, and with much less use of monumental hieroglyphic writing.
In the Post-Classic Period following the collapse, mayan essay, the state of Chichén Itzá built an empire that briefly united much of the Maya region, [3] and centers such as Mayapán and Uxmal flourished, as did the Highland states of the Kʼicheʼ and Kaqchikel Maya.
Independent Maya civilization continued until when the Spanish conquered Nojpeténthe last independent city-state. Millions of Maya people still inhabit the Yucatán peninsula today.
Because parts of Maya civilization unambiguously continued, mayan essay, a number of scholars strongly dislike the term collapse. Wyllys Andrews IV went as far as to say, "in my belief no such thing happened. The Maya often recorded dates on monuments they built. Few dated monuments were being built circa — around ten per year infor example.
The number steadily increased to twenty per year by and forty by around After this, mayan essay, the number of dated monuments begins to falter relatively quickly, collapsing back to ten by and to zero by Likewise, recorded lists of kings complement this analysis.
Altar Mayan essay at Copán shows a reign of kings from to One last king not recorded on Altar Q was Ukit Took mayan essay, "Patron of Flint", who was probably a usurper.
The dynasty is believed to have collapsed entirely shortly thereafter. In Mayan essaytwenty miles north of Copán, the last king Jade Sky began his rule between andand throughout the Maya area all kingdoms similarly fell around that time. A third piece of evidence of the progression of Maya decline, gathered by Ann Corinne Freter, Nancy Gonlin, mayan essay, and David Webster, uses a technique called obsidian hydration dating.
The technique allowed them to map the spread and growth of settlements in the Copán Valley and estimate their populations. Between andthe population was estimated at a peak of twenty-eight thousand, between and — larger than London at the time. The population then began to steadily decline, mayan essay. By the population had fallen to fifteen thousand, and by the population was again less than Over 80 different theories or variations of theories attempting to explain the Classic Maya collapse have been identified.
The archaeological evidence of mayan essay Toltec intrusion into SeibalPetensuggests to some the theory of foreign invasion, mayan essay. The latest hypothesis states that the southern lowlands were invaded by a non-Maya group whose homelands were probably in the gulf coast lowlands. This invasion began in the 9th century and set off, within years, a group of events that destroyed the Classic Maya.
It is believed that this invasion was somehow influenced by the Toltec people of central Mexico. However, most Mayanists do not believe that foreign invasion was the main cause of the Classic Maya collapse; they postulate that no military defeat can explain or be the cause of the protracted and complex Classic collapse process. Teotihuacan influence across the Maya region may have involved some form of military invasion; however, it is generally noted that significant Teotihuacan-Maya interactions date from at least the Early Classic period, well before the episodes of Late Classic collapse.
The foreign invasion theory does not answer the question of where mayan essay inhabitants went. David Webster believed that the population should have increased because of the lack of elite power. Further, it is not understood why the governmental institutions were not remade following the revolts, which happened under similar circumstances in places mayan essay China.
A study by anthropologist Elliot M. Abrams came to the conclusion that mayan essay, specifically in Copán, did not require an extensive amount of time and workers to construct. There are no documented revolutions that caused wholesale abandonment of entire regions. It has been hypothesized mayan essay the decline of the Maya is related to the collapse of their intricate trade systems, especially those connected to the central Mexican city of Teotihuacán. Preceding improved mayan essay of the chronology of Mesoamerica, mayan essay, Teotihuacan was believed to have fallen during —, forcing the "restructuring of economic relations throughout highland Mesoamerica and the Gulf Coast".
However, after researchers learned more about the events and the periods when they occurred, it is believed that the strongest Teotihuacan influence was during the 4th and 5th centuries. In addition, mayan essay, the civilization of Teotihuacan started to lose its power, and maybe abandoned the city, during — This differs greatly from the previous belief that Teotihuacano power decreased during — Rather than the decline of Teotihuacan directly preceding the collapse of the Maya, their decline is now seen as contributing "to the 6th-century 'hiatus'".
The disease theory is also a contender as a factor in the Classic Maya collapse. Widespread disease could explain some rapid depopulation, both directly through the spread of infection itself mayan essay indirectly mayan essay an inhibition to recovery over the long run.
According to Dunn and Shimkininfectious diseases mayan essay by parasites are common in tropical rainforest regions, such as the Maya lowlands, mayan essay. Shimkin specifically suggests that the Maya may have encountered endemic infections related to American trypanosomiasisAscarisand some enteropathogens that cause acute diarrheal illness.
Furthermore, some experts believe that, through development of their civilization that is, mayan essay, development of agriculture and settlementsthe Maya could have created a "disturbed environment", in which parasitic and pathogen-carrying insects often thrive. This would have made them more susceptible to other diseases later in life, mayan essay, and would have been exacerbated by an increasing dependence on carbohydrate-rich crops.
The drought theory holds that rapid climate change in the form of severe drought a megadrought brought about the Classic Maya collapse. Paleoclimatologists have discovered abundant evidence that prolonged droughts occurred in the Yucatán Peninsula and Petén Basin areas during the Terminal Classic. Large droughts likely caused a decline in agricultural fertility due to mayan essay seasonal drought drying up surface waters, mayan essay, [19] as well as causing thin tropical soils to erode when deprived of vegetation and forest cover.
Climatic factors were first implicated in the collapse as early as by Mayanists Thomas Gann and J, mayan essay. can all be explained by the effects of prolonged drought on Classic Maya civilization. provide unambiguous evidence for a severe year drought from AD to the most severe in the last 7, years precisely at the time mayan essay the Maya Collapse.
Mayan essay role of drought in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization has remained controversial, however, largely because the majority of paleoclimate records only provide qualitative datafor example whether conditions were simply "wetter" or "drier", mayan essay.
The lack of quantitative data makes it difficult to predict how climatic changes would have affected human populations and the environment in which they lived. Ina study attempted to quantify the drought using four detailed paleoclimate records of the drought event. The authors suggest that modest rainfall reductions, amounting to only 25 to 40 percent of annual rainfall, mayan essay, may have been the tipping point to the Maya collapse.
A study published in the journal Science in provides the mayan essay robust estimate of the magnitude of rainfall reduction to date.
When gypsum forms, water molecules are incorporated directly into its crystalline structure, and this water records the different isotopes that were present in the ancient lake water at the time of its formation. This quantitative climate data mayan essay be used to better predict how these drought conditions may have affected agriculture, including yields of the Maya's staple crops, such as maize. Critics of the drought theory question the spatial patterns of mayan essay and its relation to the timing of the degradation of Maya city-states, mayan essay.
Archaeological research mayan essay that while many regions of the Maya Lowlands were indeed abandoned during the eighth to eleventh centuries CE, other regions experienced only minor disruption, or even flourished.
The reasons for this spatial heterogeneity in societal disintegration are largely unknown, but researches have hypothesised that central regions may have been more affected because of a very deep water table which would have exacerbated the effects of droughtor that the longevity of the northern regions was likely facilitated by access to the coast, and thus mayan essay routes, mayan essay.
Other critics of the megadrought theory, including David Webster, note that much of the evidence of drought comes from the northern Yucatán and not the southern part of the peninsula, where Classic Maya civilization flourished. Webster states that if water sources were to have dried up, mayan essay, then several city-states would have moved to other water sources, mayan essay.
That Gill suggests that all water in the region would have dried up and destroyed Maya civilization is a stretch, according to Webster, [35] although Webster does not have a precise competing theory explaining the Classic Maya Collapse. Since publication, further records from the more southerly states have strengthened the argument of a synchronous drought occurring across the Yucatán Peninsula.
Climatic changes are, with increasing frequency, found to be major drivers in the rise and fall of civilizations all over the world. Bradley of the University of Massachusetts have written, "Many lines of evidence now point to climate forcing as the primary agent in repeated social collapse. Within the past five years new tools and new data for archaeologists, climatologists, mayan essay, and historians have brought us to the edge of a new era mayan essay the study of global and hemispheric climate change and its cultural impacts.
The climate of the Holocene, mayan essay, previously assumed static, mayan essay, now displays a surprising dynamism, which has affected the mayan essay bases of pre-industrial societies. The list of Holocene climate alterations and their socio-economic effects has rapidly become too complex for brief summary. A number of causal mechanisms for droughts in the Maya area have been proposed, mayan essay, but there is no consensus among researchers regarding a single causal mechanism.
Instead, it is likely that multiple mechanisms were involved, [29] including solar variability, [39] shifts in the position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, [40] changes in tropical cyclone frequency [26] and deforestation.
The Maya are often perceived as having lived in a rainforest, but technically, mayan essay, they lived in a seasonal desert without access to stable sources of drinking water, mayan essay.
Vernon Scarboroughan archaeologist and specialist in pre-industrial land and water usage practices, believes water management and access were critical to mayan essay development of Maya civilization. Some ecological theories of Maya decline focus on the worsening agricultural and resource conditions in the late Classic period. It was originally thought that the majority of Maya agriculture was dependent on a simple slash-and-burn system.
Based on this method, the hypothesis of soil exhaustion was advanced by Orator F. Cook in Similar soil exhaustion mayan essay are associated with erosionintensive agricultural, and savanna grass competition. More recent investigations have shown a complicated variety of intensive agricultural techniques utilized by the Maya, explaining the high population of the Classic Maya polities.
Modern archaeologists now comprehend the sophisticated intensive and productive agricultural techniques of the ancient Maya, and several of the Maya agricultural methods have not yet been reproduced. Intensive agricultural methods were developed and utilized by all the Mesoamerican cultures to boost their food production and give them a competitive advantage over less skillful peoples. In addition to mountainous terrain, Mesoamericans successfully exploited the very problematic tropical rainforest for 1, years.
The Maya thrived in territory that would be uninhabitable to most peoples. Their success over two millennia in this environment was "amazing, mayan essay. Anthropologist Joseph Tainter wrote extensively about the collapse of the Southern Lowland Maya in his study The Collapse of Complex Societies. His theory about Maya collapse encompasses some of the above explanations, but focuses specifically on the development of and the declining marginal returns from the increasing social complexity of the competing Maya city-states.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. decline of classic Maya civilization. See also: Medieval Warm Period, mayan essay. Письменность индейцев майя. Lengua y cultura mayas in Spanish.
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